LibTiff Mailing List

Mark,
Tiffcrop has the ability to perform the functions of tiffsplit and 
tiffcp in one pass. It also has a very flexible syntax for specifying 
the images that you want to extract and how they will be 
combined/separated in the destination file(s). If you want to test my 
latest code before it get released with the next distribution, please 
let me know. Many of the options are only available in the latest 
release including the export options and the ability to handle images 
with bits per sample from 1 - 32 inclusive.

I believe that there have been some posts regarding the inefficiency of 
the the directory scanning code which is designed to prevent infinite 
loops when reading files from bogus tiff writing utilities. I don't know 
if this has been addressed in recent builds.

Richard Nolde
Tiffcrop author

TIFFCROP(1) TIFFCROP(1)

NAME
tiffcrop - select, copy, crop, convert, extract, and/or process one or 
more TIFF files.

SYNOPSIS
tiffcrop [ options ] src1.tif ... srcN.tif dst.tif

DESCRIPTION
tiffcrop processes one or more files created according to the Tag Image 
File Format, Revision 6.0, specification into one
or more TIFF file(s). Tiffcrop is most often used to extract portions of 
an image for processing with bar code recog-
nizer or OCR software when that software cannot restrict the region of 
interest to a specific portion of the image or to
improve efficiency when the regions of interest must be rotated. It can 
also be used to subdivide all or part of a pro-
cessed image into smaller sections and export individual images or 
sections of images as separate files or separate
images within one or more files derived from the original input image or 
images.

The available functions can be grouped broadly into three classes:

Those that select individual images or sections of images from the input 
files. The options -N for sequences or
lists of individual images in the input files, -Z for zones, -z for 
regions, -X and -Y for fixed sized selections,
-m for margins, -U for units, and -E for edge reference provide a 
variety of ways to specify portions of the input
image.

Those that allow the individual images or selections to be exported to 
one or more output files in different
groupings and control the organization of the data in the output images. 
The options -P for page size grouping, -S
for subdivision into columns and rows and -e for export mode options 
that produce one or more files from each
input image. The options -r, -s, -t, -w control strip and tile format 
and sizes while -B -L -c -f modify the
endian addressing scheme, the compression options, and the bit fill 
sequence of images as they are written.

Those that perform some action on each image that is selected from the 
input file. The options include -R for
rotate, -I for inversion of the photometric interpretation and/or data 
values, and -F to flip (mirror) the image
horizontally or vertically.

Functions are applied to the input image(s) in the following order: 
cropping, fixed area extraction, zone and region
extraction, inversion, mirroring, rotation.

Functions are applied to the output image(s) in the following order: 
export mode options for grouping zones, regions, or
images into one or more files, or row and column divisions with output 
margins, or page size divisions with page orienta-
tion options.

Finally, strip, tile, byte order, output resolution, and compression 
options are applied to all output images.

The output file(s) may be organized and compressed using a different 
algorithm from the input files. By default,
tiffcrop will copy all the understood tags in a TIFF directory of an 
input file to the associated directory in the output
file. Options can be used to force the resultant image to be written as 
strips or tiles of data, respectively.

Tiffcrop can be used to reorganize the storage characteristics of data 
in a file, and to reorganize, extract, rotate, and
otherwise process the image data as specified at the same time whereas 
tiffcp does not alter the image data within the
file.

Using the options for selecting individual input images and the options 
for exporting images and/or segments defined as
zones or regions of each input image, tiffcrop can perform the functions 
of tiffcp and tiffsplit in a single pass while
applying multiple operations to individual selections or images.

OPTIONS
-h Display the syntax summary for tiffcrop.

-v Report the current version and last modification date for tiffcrop.

-N odd|even|#,#-#,#|last
Specify one or more series or range(s) of images within each file to 
process. The words odd or even may be used
to specify all odd or even numbered images couting from one.
The word last may be used in place of a number in the sequence to 
indicate the final image in the file without
knowing how many images there are. Ranges of images may be specified 
with a dash and multiple sets can be indi-
cated by joining them in a comma-separated list. eg. use -N 1,5-7,last 
to process the 1st, 5th through 7th, and
final image in the file.

-E top|bottom|left|right
Specify the top, bottom, left, or right edge as the reference from which 
to calcuate the width and length of crop
regions or sequence of postions for zones. When used with the -e option 
for exporting zones or regions, the refer-
ence edge determines how composite images are arranged. Using -E left or 
right causes successive zones or regions
to be merged horizontally whereas using -E top or bottom causes 
successive zones or regions to be arranged verti-
cally. This option has no effect on export layout when multiple zones or 
regions are not being exported to compos-
ite images. Edges may be abbreviated to the first letter.

-e combined|divided|image|multiple|separate
Specify the export mode for images and selections from input images. The 
final filename on the command line is
considered to be the destination file or filename stem for automatically 
generated sequences of files. Modes may
be abbreviated to the first letter.

combined All images and selections are written to a single file with 
multiple selections from one image combined
into a single image (default)

divided All images and selections are written to a single file with each 
selection from one image written to a
new image

image Each input image is written to a new file (numeric filename 
sequence) with multiple selections from the
image combined into one image

multiple Each input image is written to a new file (numeric filename 
sequence) with each selection from the
image written to a new image

separate Individual selections from each image are written to separate files

-U in|cm|px
Specify the type of units to apply to dimensions for margins and crop 
regions for input and output images. Inches
or centimeters are converted to pixels using the resolution unit 
specified in the TIFF file (which defaults to
inches if not specified in the IFD).

-m #,#,#,#
Specify margins to be removed from the input image. The order must be 
top, left, bottom, right with only commas
separating the elements of the list. Margins are scaled according to the 
current units and removed before any
other extractions are computed..

-X # Set the horizontal (X-axis) dimension of a region to extract 
relative to the specified origin reference. If the
origin is the top or bottom edge, the X axis value will be assumed to 
start at the left edge.

-Y # Set the vertical (Y-axis) dimension of a region to extract relative 
to the specified origin reference. If the ori-
gin is the left or right edge, the Y axis value will be assumed to start 
at the top.

-Z #:#,#:#
Specify zones of the image designated as position X of Y equal sized 
portions measured from the reference edge,
eg 1:3 would be first third of the image starting from the reference 
edge minus any margins specified for the con-
fining edges. Multiple zones can be specified as a comma separated list 
but they must reference the same edge. To
extract the top quarter and the bottom third of an image you would use 
-Z 1:4,3:3.

-z x1,y1,x2,y2: ... :xN,yN,xN+1,yN+1
Specify a series of coordinates to define regions for processing and 
exporting. The coordinates represent the top
left and lower right corners of each region in the current units, eg 
inch, cm, or pixels. Pixels are counted from
one to width or height and inches or cm are calculated from image 
resolution data.

Each colon delimited series of four values represents the horizontal and 
vertical offsets from the top and left
edges of the image, regardless of the edge specified with the -E option. 
The first and third values represent the
horizontal offsets of the corner points from the left edge while the 
second and fourth values represent the verti-
cal offsets from the top edge.
-F horiz|vert
Flip, ie mirror, the image or extracted region horizontally or vertically.

-R 90|180|270
Rotate the image or extracted region 90, 180, or 270 degrees clockwise.

-I [black|white|data|both]
Invert color space, eg dark to light for bilevel and grayscale images. 
This can be used to modify negative images
to positive or to correct images that have the PHOTOMETRIC_INTERPRETATIN 
tag set incorrectly. If the value is
black or white, the PHOTOMETRIC_INTERPRETATION tag is set to MinIsBlack 
or MinIsWhite, without altering the image
data. If the argument is data or both, the data values of the image are 
modified. Specifying both inverts the data
and the PHOTOMETRIC_INTERPRETATION tag, whereas using data inverts the 
data but not the PHOTOMETRIC_INTERPRETATION
tag. No support for modifying the color space of color images in this 
release.

-H # Set the horizontal resolution of output images to # expressed in 
the current units.

-V # Set the vertical resolution of the output images to # expressed in 
the current units.

-J # Set the horizontal margin of an output page size to # expressed in 
the current units.

-K # Set the vertical margin of an output page size to # expressed in 
the current units.

-O portrait|landscape|auto
Set the output orientation of the pages or sections. Auto will use the 
arrangement that requires the fewest
pages. This option is only meaningful in conjunction with the -P option 
to format an image to fit on a specific
paper size.

-P page
Format the output images to fit on page size paper. Use -P list to show 
the supported page sizes and dimensions.

-S cols:rows
Divide each image into cols across and rows down equal sections.

-B Force output to be written with Big-Endian byte order. This option 
only has an effect when the output file is
created or overwritten and not when it is appended to.

-C Suppress the use of ‘‘strip chopping’’ when reading images that have 
a single strip/tile of uncompressed data.

-c Specify the compression to use for data written to the output file: 
none for no compression, packbits for PackBits
compression, lzw for Lempel-Ziv & Welch compression, jpeg for baseline 
JPEG compression, zip for Deflate compres-
sion, g3 for CCITT Group 3 (T.4) compression, and g4 for CCITT Group 4 
(T.6) compression. By default tiffcrop
will compress data according to the value of the Compression tag found 
in the source file.

The CCITT Group 3 and Group 4 compression algorithms can only be used 
with bilevel data.

Group 3 compression can be specified together with several T.4-specific 
options: 1d for 1-dimensional encoding, 2d
for 2-dimensional encoding, and fill to force each encoded scanline to 
be zero-filled so that the terminating EOL
code lies on a byte boundary. Group 3-specific options are specified by 
appending a ‘‘:’’-separated list to the
‘‘g3’’ option; e.g. -c g3:2d:fill to get 2D-encoded data with 
byte-aligned EOL codes.

LZW compression can be specified together with a predictor value. A 
predictor value of 2 causes each scanline of
the output image to undergo horizontal differencing before it is 
encoded; a value of 1 forces each scanline to be
encoded without differencing. LZW-specific options are specified by 
appending a ‘‘:’’-separated list to the
‘‘lzw’’ option; e.g. -c lzw:2 for LZW compression with horizontal 
differencing.

-f Specify the bit fill order to use in writing output data. By default, 
tiffcrop will create a new file with the
same fill order as the original. Specifying -f lsb2msb will force data 
to be written with the FillOrder tag set
to LSB2MSB, while -f msb2lsb will force data to be written with the 
FillOrder tag set to MSB2LSB.

-i Ignore non-fatal read errors and continue processing of the input file.

-l Specify the length of a tile (in pixels). Tiffcrop attempts to set 
the tile dimensions so that no more than 8
kilobytes of data appear in a tile.

-L Force output to be written with Little-Endian byte order. This option 
only has an effect when the output file is
created or overwritten and not when it is appended to.

-M Suppress the use of memory-mapped files when reading images.

-p Specify the planar configuration to use in writing image data that 
has more than one sample per pixel. By
default, tiffcrop will create a new file with the same planar 
configuration as the original. Specifying -p contig
will force data to be written with multi-sample data packed together, 
while -p separate will force samples to be
written in separate planes.

-r Specify the number of rows (scanlines) in each strip of data written 
to the output file. By default (or when
value 0 is specified), tiffcrop attempts to set the rows/strip that no 
more than 8 kilobytes of data appear in a
strip. If you specify the special value -1 it will results in infinite 
number of the rows per strip. The entire
image will be the one strip in that case.

-s Force the output file to be written with data organized in strips 
(rather than tiles).
-t Force the output file to be written with data organized in tiles 
(rather than strips).

-w Specify the width of a tile (in pixels). tiffcrop attempts to set the 
tile dimensions so that no more than 8
kilobytes of data appear in a tile. tiffcrop attempts to set the tile 
dimensions so that no more than 8 kilobytes
of data appear in a tile.

Debug and dump facility
-D opt1:value1,opt2:value2,opt3:value3:opt4:value4 Display program 
progress and/or dump raw data to non-TIFF
files. Options include the following and must be joined as a comma 
separate list. The use of this option is gen-
erally limited to program debugging and development of future options. 
An equal sign may be substituted for the
colon in option:value pairs.

debug:N Display limited program progress indicators where larger N 
increase the level of detail.

format:txt|raw Format any logged data as ASCII text or raw binary 
values. ASCII text dumps include strings of
ones and zeroes representing the binary values in the image data plus 
identifying headers.

level:N Specify the level of detail presented in the dump files. This 
can vary from dumps of the entire
input or output image data to dumps of data processed by specific 
functions. Current range of levels is 1 to 3.

input:full-path-to-directory/input-dumpname

output:full-path-to-directory/output-dumpname

When dump files are being written, each image will be written to a 
separate file with the name built by adding a
numeric sequence value to the dumpname and an extension of .txt for 
ASCII dumps or .bin for binary dumps.

The four debug/dump options are independent, though it makes little 
sense to specify a dump file without specify-
ing a detail level.


AWARE [SYSTEMS]		Imaging expertise for the Delphi developer
		TIFF and LibTiff Mailing List Archive
	LibTiff Mailing List TIFF and LibTiff Mailing List Archive January 2009 Previous Thread Next Thread Previous by Thread Next by Thread Previous by Date Next by Date Contact The TIFF Mailing List Homepage This list is run by Frank Warmerdam Archive maintained by AWare Systems	2009.01.06 19:13 "Removing an image from a multipage tiff file", by Richard Nolde Mark, Tiffcrop has the ability to perform the functions of tiffsplit and tiffcp in one pass. It also has a very flexible syntax for specifying the images that you want to extract and how they will be combined/separated in the destination file(s). If you want to test my latest code before it get released with the next distribution, please let me know. Many of the options are only available in the latest release including the export options and the ability to handle images with bits per sample from 1 - 32 inclusive. I believe that there have been some posts regarding the inefficiency of the the directory scanning code which is designed to prevent infinite loops when reading files from bogus tiff writing utilities. I don't know if this has been addressed in recent builds. Richard Nolde Tiffcrop author TIFFCROP(1) TIFFCROP(1) NAME tiffcrop - select, copy, crop, convert, extract, and/or process one or more TIFF files. SYNOPSIS tiffcrop [ options ] src1.tif ... srcN.tif dst.tif DESCRIPTION tiffcrop processes one or more files created according to the Tag Image File Format, Revision 6.0, specification into one or more TIFF file(s). Tiffcrop is most often used to extract portions of an image for processing with bar code recog- nizer or OCR software when that software cannot restrict the region of interest to a specific portion of the image or to improve efficiency when the regions of interest must be rotated. It can also be used to subdivide all or part of a pro- cessed image into smaller sections and export individual images or sections of images as separate files or separate images within one or more files derived from the original input image or images. The available functions can be grouped broadly into three classes: Those that select individual images or sections of images from the input files. The options -N for sequences or lists of individual images in the input files, -Z for zones, -z for regions, -X and -Y for fixed sized selections, -m for margins, -U for units, and -E for edge reference provide a variety of ways to specify portions of the input image. Those that allow the individual images or selections to be exported to one or more output files in different groupings and control the organization of the data in the output images. The options -P for page size grouping, -S for subdivision into columns and rows and -e for export mode options that produce one or more files from each input image. The options -r, -s, -t, -w control strip and tile format and sizes while -B -L -c -f modify the endian addressing scheme, the compression options, and the bit fill sequence of images as they are written. Those that perform some action on each image that is selected from the input file. The options include -R for rotate, -I for inversion of the photometric interpretation and/or data values, and -F to flip (mirror) the image horizontally or vertically. Functions are applied to the input image(s) in the following order: cropping, fixed area extraction, zone and region extraction, inversion, mirroring, rotation. Functions are applied to the output image(s) in the following order: export mode options for grouping zones, regions, or images into one or more files, or row and column divisions with output margins, or page size divisions with page orienta- tion options. Finally, strip, tile, byte order, output resolution, and compression options are applied to all output images. The output file(s) may be organized and compressed using a different algorithm from the input files. By default, tiffcrop will copy all the understood tags in a TIFF directory of an input file to the associated directory in the output file. Options can be used to force the resultant image to be written as strips or tiles of data, respectively. Tiffcrop can be used to reorganize the storage characteristics of data in a file, and to reorganize, extract, rotate, and otherwise process the image data as specified at the same time whereas tiffcp does not alter the image data within the file. Using the options for selecting individual input images and the options for exporting images and/or segments defined as zones or regions of each input image, tiffcrop can perform the functions of tiffcp and tiffsplit in a single pass while applying multiple operations to individual selections or images. OPTIONS -h Display the syntax summary for tiffcrop. -v Report the current version and last modification date for tiffcrop. -N odd\|even\|#,#-#,#\|last Specify one or more series or range(s) of images within each file to process. The words odd or even may be used to specify all odd or even numbered images couting from one. The word last may be used in place of a number in the sequence to indicate the final image in the file without knowing how many images there are. Ranges of images may be specified with a dash and multiple sets can be indi- cated by joining them in a comma-separated list. eg. use -N 1,5-7,last to process the 1st, 5th through 7th, and final image in the file. -E top\|bottom\|left\|right Specify the top, bottom, left, or right edge as the reference from which to calcuate the width and length of crop regions or sequence of postions for zones. When used with the -e option for exporting zones or regions, the refer- ence edge determines how composite images are arranged. Using -E left or right causes successive zones or regions to be merged horizontally whereas using -E top or bottom causes successive zones or regions to be arranged verti- cally. This option has no effect on export layout when multiple zones or regions are not being exported to compos- ite images. Edges may be abbreviated to the first letter. -e combined\|divided\|image\|multiple\|separate Specify the export mode for images and selections from input images. The final filename on the command line is considered to be the destination file or filename stem for automatically generated sequences of files. Modes may be abbreviated to the first letter. combined All images and selections are written to a single file with multiple selections from one image combined into a single image (default) divided All images and selections are written to a single file with each selection from one image written to a new image image Each input image is written to a new file (numeric filename sequence) with multiple selections from the image combined into one image multiple Each input image is written to a new file (numeric filename sequence) with each selection from the image written to a new image separate Individual selections from each image are written to separate files -U in\|cm\|px Specify the type of units to apply to dimensions for margins and crop regions for input and output images. Inches or centimeters are converted to pixels using the resolution unit specified in the TIFF file (which defaults to inches if not specified in the IFD). -m #,#,#,# Specify margins to be removed from the input image. The order must be top, left, bottom, right with only commas separating the elements of the list. Margins are scaled according to the current units and removed before any other extractions are computed.. -X # Set the horizontal (X-axis) dimension of a region to extract relative to the specified origin reference. If the origin is the top or bottom edge, the X axis value will be assumed to start at the left edge. -Y # Set the vertical (Y-axis) dimension of a region to extract relative to the specified origin reference. If the ori- gin is the left or right edge, the Y axis value will be assumed to start at the top. -Z #:#,#:# Specify zones of the image designated as position X of Y equal sized portions measured from the reference edge, eg 1:3 would be first third of the image starting from the reference edge minus any margins specified for the con- fining edges. Multiple zones can be specified as a comma separated list but they must reference the same edge. To extract the top quarter and the bottom third of an image you would use -Z 1:4,3:3. -z x1,y1,x2,y2: ... :xN,yN,xN+1,yN+1 Specify a series of coordinates to define regions for processing and exporting. The coordinates represent the top left and lower right corners of each region in the current units, eg inch, cm, or pixels. Pixels are counted from one to width or height and inches or cm are calculated from image resolution data. Each colon delimited series of four values represents the horizontal and vertical offsets from the top and left edges of the image, regardless of the edge specified with the -E option. The first and third values represent the horizontal offsets of the corner points from the left edge while the second and fourth values represent the verti- cal offsets from the top edge. -F horiz\|vert Flip, ie mirror, the image or extracted region horizontally or vertically. -R 90\|180\|270 Rotate the image or extracted region 90, 180, or 270 degrees clockwise. -I [black\|white\|data\|both] Invert color space, eg dark to light for bilevel and grayscale images. This can be used to modify negative images to positive or to correct images that have the PHOTOMETRIC_INTERPRETATIN tag set incorrectly. If the value is black or white, the PHOTOMETRIC_INTERPRETATION tag is set to MinIsBlack or MinIsWhite, without altering the image data. If the argument is data or both, the data values of the image are modified. Specifying both inverts the data and the PHOTOMETRIC_INTERPRETATION tag, whereas using data inverts the data but not the PHOTOMETRIC_INTERPRETATION tag. No support for modifying the color space of color images in this release. -H # Set the horizontal resolution of output images to # expressed in the current units. -V # Set the vertical resolution of the output images to # expressed in the current units. -J # Set the horizontal margin of an output page size to # expressed in the current units. -K # Set the vertical margin of an output page size to # expressed in the current units. -O portrait\|landscape\|auto Set the output orientation of the pages or sections. Auto will use the arrangement that requires the fewest pages. This option is only meaningful in conjunction with the -P option to format an image to fit on a specific paper size. -P page Format the output images to fit on page size paper. Use -P list to show the supported page sizes and dimensions. -S cols:rows Divide each image into cols across and rows down equal sections. -B Force output to be written with Big-Endian byte order. This option only has an effect when the output file is created or overwritten and not when it is appended to. -C Suppress the use of ‘‘strip chopping’’ when reading images that have a single strip/tile of uncompressed data. -c Specify the compression to use for data written to the output file: none for no compression, packbits for PackBits compression, lzw for Lempel-Ziv & Welch compression, jpeg for baseline JPEG compression, zip for Deflate compres- sion, g3 for CCITT Group 3 (T.4) compression, and g4 for CCITT Group 4 (T.6) compression. By default tiffcrop will compress data according to the value of the Compression tag found in the source file. The CCITT Group 3 and Group 4 compression algorithms can only be used with bilevel data. Group 3 compression can be specified together with several T.4-specific options: 1d for 1-dimensional encoding, 2d for 2-dimensional encoding, and fill to force each encoded scanline to be zero-filled so that the terminating EOL code lies on a byte boundary. Group 3-specific options are specified by appending a ‘‘:’’-separated list to the ‘‘g3’’ option; e.g. -c g3:2d:fill to get 2D-encoded data with byte-aligned EOL codes. LZW compression can be specified together with a predictor value. A predictor value of 2 causes each scanline of the output image to undergo horizontal differencing before it is encoded; a value of 1 forces each scanline to be encoded without differencing. LZW-specific options are specified by appending a ‘‘:’’-separated list to the ‘‘lzw’’ option; e.g. -c lzw:2 for LZW compression with horizontal differencing. -f Specify the bit fill order to use in writing output data. By default, tiffcrop will create a new file with the same fill order as the original. Specifying -f lsb2msb will force data to be written with the FillOrder tag set to LSB2MSB, while -f msb2lsb will force data to be written with the FillOrder tag set to MSB2LSB. -i Ignore non-fatal read errors and continue processing of the input file. -l Specify the length of a tile (in pixels). Tiffcrop attempts to set the tile dimensions so that no more than 8 kilobytes of data appear in a tile. -L Force output to be written with Little-Endian byte order. This option only has an effect when the output file is created or overwritten and not when it is appended to. -M Suppress the use of memory-mapped files when reading images. -p Specify the planar configuration to use in writing image data that has more than one sample per pixel. By default, tiffcrop will create a new file with the same planar configuration as the original. Specifying -p contig will force data to be written with multi-sample data packed together, while -p separate will force samples to be written in separate planes. -r Specify the number of rows (scanlines) in each strip of data written to the output file. By default (or when value 0 is specified), tiffcrop attempts to set the rows/strip that no more than 8 kilobytes of data appear in a strip. If you specify the special value -1 it will results in infinite number of the rows per strip. The entire image will be the one strip in that case. -s Force the output file to be written with data organized in strips (rather than tiles). -t Force the output file to be written with data organized in tiles (rather than strips). -w Specify the width of a tile (in pixels). tiffcrop attempts to set the tile dimensions so that no more than 8 kilobytes of data appear in a tile. tiffcrop attempts to set the tile dimensions so that no more than 8 kilobytes of data appear in a tile. Debug and dump facility -D opt1:value1,opt2:value2,opt3:value3:opt4:value4 Display program progress and/or dump raw data to non-TIFF files. Options include the following and must be joined as a comma separate list. The use of this option is gen- erally limited to program debugging and development of future options. An equal sign may be substituted for the colon in option:value pairs. debug:N Display limited program progress indicators where larger N increase the level of detail. format:txt\|raw Format any logged data as ASCII text or raw binary values. ASCII text dumps include strings of ones and zeroes representing the binary values in the image data plus identifying headers. level:N Specify the level of detail presented in the dump files. This can vary from dumps of the entire input or output image data to dumps of data processed by specific functions. Current range of levels is 1 to 3. input:full-path-to-directory/input-dumpname output:full-path-to-directory/output-dumpname When dump files are being written, each image will be written to a separate file with the name built by adding a numeric sequence value to the dumpname and an extension of .txt for ASCII dumps or .bin for binary dumps. The four debug/dump options are independent, though it makes little sense to specify a dump file without specify- ing a detail level.

LibTiff Mailing List

2009.01.06 19:13 "Removing an image from a multipage tiff file", by Richard Nolde